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Gender-based violence

Violence against women and girls is a significant human rights violation but it is still perpetrated in many countries around the world. Gender-based violence is a term which is used for any harmful act carried out against a person’s will because of gender differences between men and women. These acts can cause physical, sexual or mental harm and can include coercion or threats.[1] According to the World Bank Group, gender-based violence affects 1 in 3 women during their lifetime with 35% of women experiencing physical and/or sexual violence.[2] The World Bank Group also states that around the world, 38% of murders of women are carried out by their partners and 200 million women and girls have experienced female genital mutilation.[3] These statistics are alarming and violence against women and girls can cause long-lasting and detrimental effects.

In this article, we will firstly look at what causes gender-based violence around the world. We will then consider the impact of gender-based violence on girls and women. Lastly, we will examine the work carried out by charities and other organisations to help eradicate the practice of gender-based violence.

The main causes of gender-based violence

Poverty

Poverty is one of the main drivers behind gender-based violence globally. Women and girls living in poverty often face discrimination due to gender biases and unequal power relationships. As a result of these gender inequalities, they are exposed to many forms of violence.[4] Women and girls living in poverty may reside in unsafe and dangerous environments which increases their risk to violence. They often have to walk long distances through isolated places to gather firewood or collect water and as a result, they are at risk of sexual assault.[5] Furthermore, women and girls in poverty are often tasked with countless household chores and this may create problems within the household which regularly leads to domestic violence.[6] Sadly, these women and girls do not have many opportunities to leave violent relationships with their partners because they lack income and resources.[7]

Cultural and social norms

In many communities, violence against women and girls is often overlooked as being a cultural or social norm. Norms and attitudes within communities and cultures can often be difficult to change because they may be based on religion and other factors.[8] Some communities do not recognise wife beating as violence and sexually harassing girls is considered a norm.[9] According to The Borgen Project, families uphold the sexual purity of women and girls and this is why female genital mutilation is a widespread practice in many communities.[10] Family honour is regarded as more important than women and girls’ safety which results in honour killings.[11] Additionally, the practice of widow inheritance is common and considered a cultural norm. This is where a widow is forced to marry a male relative of her late husband in order to prevent the women being able to inherit land and property.[12]

Perpetrators are not punished due to violence being unreported

Many forms of violence are not reported to the authorities and accordingly, perpetrators are not punished and the violent acts against women and girls can continue. Secretary-General of the United Nations, António Guterres, has stated that ‘[s]exual violence against women and girls is rooted in centuries of male domination…reminding the world that stigma, misconceptions, under-reporting and poor enforcement of laws perpetuate impunity in rape cases’.[13] According to the World Health Organisation, there are many reasons why girls and women do not report violence including insufficient support systems; shame; fear of retaliation; fear of not being believed or blamed, and fear of being socially ostracised.[14] In some places, raped women and girls may be killed if they are regarded as having dishonoured their families.[15] Furthermore, law enforcement agencies may not recognise women’s rights and are also impacted by gender inequalities. As a result, violence is overlooked and violent acts continue to be pursued.

The impact of gender-based violence

Physical and sexual health problems

Gender-based violence can cause many physical and sexual health problems for women and girls. These include unwanted pregnancies, male impotence and the possibility of being infected by a sexually transmitted disease such as HIV.[16] According to Médicins Sans Frontières, STIs are more likely caused by forced sex as viruses can enter through tears.[17] Unwanted pregnancies can often lead to abortions being carried out in unsafe conditions. The World Health Organisation’s 2013 study found that those who had been sexually or physically abused were twice as likely to have an abortion.[18] Physical health problems can include neurological illnesses, gastrointestinal illnesses, and muscularly, urinary or reproductive problems.[19]

Mental health problems

Victims of gender-based violence often suffer from many psychological and mental health problems as well. These include depression, anxiety, alcohol and drug abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder and thoughts of suicide.[20] Médicins Sans Frontières has noted that victims may also suffer from guilt and feel as though they could have avoided any incident. Women and girls may also struggle with trusting others which could affect relationships with others.[21] Additionally, survivors of gender-based violence may be frowned upon in some communities and victims of rape may be humiliated in certain cultures which can lead to their mental health suffering.[22]

The impact on children who are born as a result of gender-based violence

Gender-based violence can also impact child survival rates and may contribute to increasing infant mortality rates.[23] A study in the Tigray region of Ethiopia has shown that women who were subject to intimate partner violence were 3 times more likely to have a low birth weight and preterm birth. The study also shows that women who were subject to physical violence during pregnancy were 5 times more likely to experience low birth weight and preterm birth.[24] There are many issues associated with low birth weight including children suffering from infections, malnutrition, issues with cognitive development, stunting by the age of two, chronic disease and problems in education and economic activities at a later age.[25]

Ways to eradicate gender-based violence

The World Bank Group has argued that in order to reduce violence against women and girls, a community-based, multi-pronged stance is required along with cooperation with different stakeholders.[26] Charities, organisations and other bodies have adopted various approaches to help to decrease gender-based violence and some of these are outlined below.

Prevention

Preventing violence against women and girls before it is carried out is one of the main ways to stop violent acts all together. Structural biases and cultural norms need to be addressed and the discriminatory acts which women and girls face need to be considered.[27] UN Women has adopted a prevention strategy which looks at early education, achieving valued relationships and working with men and boys through media, sports and work.[28] Working with men and boys helps to educate them about gender equality and teaches them about the negative impact of violent behaviours on girls and women. UN Women partnered with the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts and have implemented a curriculum which allows young people to understand causes of violence in communities. The curriculum also helps to educate people in the communities and prevent gender-based violence.[29]

Advocacy

Laws promoting gender equality and defining violence need to be implemented and enforced within local communities. Charities such as CARE International advocate for laws and policies to be created, revised or improved and base their work on international agreements such as the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women and Security Council Resolution 1325.[30] Other charities and organisations create public awareness campaigns for both men and women which help them to become aware of their rights, the legal consequences for violent behaviour and the effects of gender-based violence on the future generation.[31] Plan International has introduced a Safer Cities for Girls programme which enables girls to voice any issues in urban areas and allows them to advocate for change.[32]

Supporting survivors of violence

Many charities and organisations have created support networks for victims of violence. CARE International works with partners to implement community support systems for victims of violence in order to ensure they are safe. Initiatives include community watch groups and safe houses.[33] Other organisations such as International Medical Corps provides specialised support services for survivors of gender-based violence in emergency settings. Survivors are provided with tailored support from workers who help them to access services and support. International Medical Corps have implemented women and girls’ safe spaces in camps and communities in Iraq and have trained Iraqi and Syrian women to provide support services to survivors. If survivors require more psychological support, they can be referred to Mental Health/Psycho-Social services.[34]

Conclusion

Overall, it is clear that gender-based violence remains prevalent in many countries throughout the world. Poverty along with gender inequality are the main drivers of violence against women and girls along with cultural and social norms. Violence often goes unreported meaning that perpetrators are not punished and continue to commit these acts of violence. Gender-based violence has many physical and sexual health consequences for women and girls. It affects them mentally and children who are born as a result of gender-based violence can also be indirectly affected. Charities and organisations around the world have introduced initiatives aimed at changing attitudes and norms within communities, advocating the introduction and amendment of laws and policies, and also offer services aimed at supporting victims of violence. In addition to the extensive work already being carried out by many charities and organisations, more groundwork, lobbying and collaboration with local authorities and community leaders is required in order to eradicate gender-based violence all together.

[1]Inter-Agency Standing Committee 2015, ‘Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery’ <https://gbvguidelines.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/2015_IASC_Gender-based_Violence_Guidelines_full-res.pdf> accessed 25 October 2021

[2]World Bank Group, ‘Gender-Based Violence (Violence Against Women and Girls)’ <https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/socialsustainability/brief/violence-against-women-and-girls> accessed 25 October 2021

[3]ibid

[4]UN Women, ‘Women and poverty’ <https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/end-violence-against-women/2014/poverty> accessed 25 October 2021

[5]NGO Pulse, ‘Gender-based Violence and Poverty’ <http://www.ngopulse.org/node/75924> accessed 25 October 2021

[6]ibid

[7]UN Women, ‘Women and poverty’ (n 4)

[8]The Borgen Project, ‘Poverty and gender-based violence’ <https://borgenproject.org/poverty-and-gender-based-violence/> accessed 25 October 2021

[9]NGO Pulse, ‘Gender-based Violence and Poverty’ (n 5)

[10]The Borgen Project, ‘Poverty and gender-based violence’ (n 8)

[11]ibid

[12]NGO Pulse, ‘Gender-based Violence and Poverty’ (n 5)

[13]United Nations, ‘A staggering one-in-three women, experience physical, sexual abuse’ (24 November 2019)

[14]World Health Organisation, ‘Understanding and addressing violence against women’ <https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/77434/WHO_RHR_12.37_eng.pdf;jsessionid=475E9CAE52F74885D38DEFDBA680079E?sequence=> accessed 25 October 2021

[15]NGO Pulse, ‘Gender-based Violence and Poverty’ (n 5)

[16]Inter-Agency Standing Committee 2015, ‘Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery’ (n 1)

[17]Médicins Sans Frontières, ‘Sexual and gender-based violence’ <https://msf.org.uk/issues/sexual-and-gender-based-violence> accessed 25 October 2021

[18]World Health Organisation, ‘Violence against women’ <https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women> accessed 25 October 2021

[19]Inter-Agency Standing Committee 2015, ‘Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery’ (n 1)

[20]ibid

[21]Médicins Sans Frontières, ‘Sexual and gender-based violence’ (n 17)

[22]ibid

[23]Inter-Agency Standing Committee 2015, ‘Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action: Reducing risk, promoting resilience and aiding recovery’ (n 1)

[24]Berhanie, E., Gebregziabher, D., Berihu, H, Gerezgiher A., Kidane G.,‘Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: a case-control study’ Reproductive Health 16, 22 (2019) <https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-019-0670-4> accessed 25 October 2021

[25]Ferdos J., Rahman M.M., ‘Maternal experience of intimate partner violence and low birth weight of children: A hospital-based study in Bangladesh’ PLoS ONE 12(10): e0187138 (2017) <https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187138> accessed 25 October 2021

[26]World Bank Group, ‘Gender-Based Violence (Violence Against Women and Girls)’ (n 2)

[27]UN Women, ‘Ending violence against women’ <https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against-women> accessed 25 October 2021

[28]ibid

[29]ibid

[30]CARE International, ‘Challenging Gender-based Violence Worldwide: CARE’s Program Evidence Strategies, Results and Impacts of Evaluations 2011-2013’ <https://insights.careinternational.org.uk/media/k2/attachments/Challenging-GBV-Worldwide-CARE-program-experience-2014.pdf> access 25 October 2021

[31]NGO Pulse, ‘Gender-based Violence and Poverty’ (n 5)

[32]Plan International, ‘Gender-based violence’ <https://plan-international.org/ending-violence/gbv-gender-based-violence> accessed 25 October 2021

[33]CARE International, ‘Challenging Gender-based Violence Worldwide: CARE’s Program Evidence Strategies, Results and Impacts of Evaluations 2011-2013’ (n 30)

[34]International Medical Corps, ‘Focused support services for survivors of gender-based violence; Gender-based Violence Prevention & Response’ <https://internationalmedicalcorps.org/program/womens-childrens-health/gender-based-violence-response-prevention/focused-support-services-for-survivors-of-gender-based-violence/> accessed 25 October 2021

Helen Little In Programmes

Street Children With Disabilities: Poor Health and Violence

young boy looking scared, hiding between some wooden planks.

Impacts Of Living with Disability As A Street Child: Poor Health & Violence

Living on the street

Some street children are forced to live and fend for themselves with no adults to care for them. This can be due to illness, exclusion or humanitarian crisis (1). For example, the HIV pandemic and ongoing war in many countries has left many children orphaned (1). This has forced more on to the streets (1). Others still have families to return home to at night but work on the street to contribute to their family’s income (2). Regardless, street children are more likely to be affected by disability due to poor health and violence (1). Disability also makes children more vulnerable to illness and violence. Many children with pre-existing disabilities often end up on the street due to discrimination and rejection from their communities (3).

Poor health in street children

Children living with disability are at greater risk of illness, which can be partly due to difficulties in accessing health services (4). For example, children with disabilities commonly receive fewer essential vaccinations and basic healthcare (5). Similarly, the poor health and illness suffered by street children is often as a result of poverty and limited access to healthcare (7). This suggests that also living with disability exacerbates the poor health experienced by street children. Almost all street children experience health problems, relating to growth, violence and infectious diseases along with mental illness and substance abuse (8). In addition, a study carried out in Alexandria in Egypt found that 83% of street children were malnourished (9). This is not surprising, but it highlights how the health of almost all street children can be affected by poverty.

Street children also suffer from disproportionately high levels of HIV / AIDs, overlapping with other groups affected by HIV, including intravenous drug users (10;11). As a result, there have been specific targets of HIV/AIDs interventions towards street children. While these have been effective, further progress will better protect street children and those with disability from illness. Railway Children is an organisation which works at three levels to better support all street children (12). They work at street level and community level to work with people directly and also at government level to influence policy for better protection of street children (12).

Abuse and violence in street children

Both street children and children with disabilities are more susceptible to violence (5). Studies carried out in Cairo and Alexandria in Egypt found that as much as 93% of street children had experienced harassment and abuse (11). Most of this abuse was by police and other street children (11). In addition, research shows that children with disabilities are as much as three times more at risk of violence than non-disabled children (5). Exclusion and sometimes a lack of care can leave them more vulnerable to harm, where they viewed as ‘easier targets’ (5).

Improving the health of street children with disabilities

It has been suggested that the creation of safe shelters could help improve poor health (8). These would be very helpful in providing safe spaces for street children and those with disability, which would limit their risk of harm (8). However, beyond support by charities and other non-governmental organisations, there is a need to introduce new policies which better protect street children (8).

Chance for Childhood works with KUAP to support street children and street children with disabilities, in Kisumu, Kenya (13). Unfortunately, COVID-19 forced them to pause much of their work. In response, remote counselling had been arranged for some of the children (13). However, KUAP has also continued to supply food packages to 60 local families with children struggling with dysphagia. This programme has been essential in helping to improve the health of street children and those with disabilities. KUAP also tries to reunite street children with their families. (13).

There are some positive steps in place to improve the poor health of street children with disabilities. However, more help is urgently needed, which is why here at Poverty Child we are dedicated to supporting street-connected children. We would be grateful for any donations. If you wish please donate to Poverty Child.

References

1. Child S. The Facts about Street Children | Consortium for Street Children [Internet]. Consortium for Street Children. 2021 [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.streetchildren.org/about-street-children/

2. On International Day of Persons with Disabilities we Advocate for Inclusive Education — Street Child [Internet]. Street Child. 2019 [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.co.uk/blog/2019/12/4/on-international-day-of-persons-with-disabilities-we-advocate-inclusive-education

3. Our work / Toybox [Internet]. Toybox.org.uk. [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://toybox.org.uk/our-work

4. Kuper H, Monteath-van Dok A, Wing K, Danquah L, Evans J, Zuurmond M et al. The Impact of Disability on the Lives of Children; Cross-Sectional Data Including 8,900 Children with Disabilities and 898,834 Children without Disabilities across 30 Countries. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2014 [cited 24 August 2021];9(9):e107300. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4159292/

5. World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund (‎UNICEF)‎. (‎2012)‎. Early childhood development and disability: a discussion paper. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/75355

6. Panter‐brick C. Homelessness, poverty, and risks to health: beyond at risk categorizations of street children1. Children’s Geographies [Internet]. 2004 [cited 25 August 2021];2(1):83-94. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1473328032000168787?casa_token=IrddfS6UXfoAAAAA%3AR_P9f01XM_z57spnmwwr9dOShWSZ33cpaFX98fy6UXBNkmOpVXvdkhqupQhPAM-m_PAhOhpH84VVlA

7. Cumber S, Tsoka-Gwegweni J. The health profile of street children in Africa: a literature review. Journal of Public Health in Africa [Internet]. 2015 [cited 25 August 2021];. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5349275/

8. Cumber S, Tsoka-Gwegweni J. The health profile of street children in Africa: a literature review. Journal of Public Health in Africa [Internet]. 2015 [cited 25 August 2021];. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5349275/

9. Salem E, el-latif F. Sociodemographic characteristics of street children in Alexandria. East Mediterranean Health Journal [Internet]. 2002 [cited 25 August 2021];8(1):64-73. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15330562/

10. Marshall B, Kerr T, Shoveller J, Montaner J, Wood E. Structural factors associated with an increased risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infection transmission among street-involved youth. BMC Public Health [Internet]. 2009 [cited 25 August 2021];9(1). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19134203/

11. Nada K, Suliman E. Violence, abuse, alcohol and drug use, and sexual behaviors in street children of Greater Cairo and Alexandria, Egypt. AIDS [Internet]. 2010 [cited 25 August 2021];24(Suppl 2):S39-S44. Available from: https://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/Fulltext/2010/07002/Violence,_abuse,_alcohol_and_drug_use,_and_sexual.5.aspx

12. Fighting for Street Children [Internet]. Railwaychildren.org.uk. [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.railwaychildren.org.uk/

13. How we’re supporting vulnerable children during Coronavirus | Chance for Childhood – Children’s charity [Internet]. Chance for Childhood. 2020 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://chanceforchildhood.org/latest-news/how-were-supporting-vulnerable-children-during-coronavirus/

Amy Kerr In Programmes

Girls’ education

Every child should be afforded the opportunity to attend school and learn the fundamental skills required in life. Education allows children to grow and develop important knowledge in order to strive and succeed in their future lives. Whether a child should have access to this should not be based on his or her gender. Nevertheless, for children living in poverty, it is mostly girls who are deprived of this which leads to gender inequality. According to UNICEF, around the world, 129 million girls are not in school. This includes 32 million girls of primary school age, 30 million girls of lower-secondary school age and 67 million girls of upper-secondary school age.[1] Statistics show that only 49% of countries have an equal number of boys and girls in primary education and this percentage lowers at secondary school level with only 42% of countries having an equal number of boys and girls in lower-secondary education and 24% in upper-secondary education.

In this article, we will firstly look at the reasons as to why girls are prevented from accessing education in many countries worldwide. We will then consider why it is crucial that girls can access education. Lastly, we will explore some of the projects and initiatives set up by charities which aim to help girls access education.

Barriers preventing girls’ education

Poverty

Poverty is one of the main drivers behind girls’ lack of education in many countries around the world. According to the World Bank Group, girls who belong to a family with little income, live in remote locations, have a disability or who are part of a minority ethno-linguistic group are the most behind in terms of accessing and completing education.[2] Families with little income often do not have the money to pay for schools and costs related to schooling such as textbooks, uniforms, transportation and supplies.[3] Therefore, if there are multiple children in a family, boys are usually favoured when it comes to education and girls are asked to help around the house and look after siblings or family members.[4]

Child marriage

Sadly, poverty also results in child marriage which is another reason as to why girls lack education. As stated by Dolores Dixon, Executive Director for Camfed in Canada, “parents who can afford it would not necessarily hold back their children from going to school but if you can’t afford it you will then have to make a choice…they feel [marriage] is the best option within the limited options”.[5] Girls who marry at a young age are less likely to attend school and are more likely to complete less years of education and have children at a young age. The World Bank Group has reported that girls who have been in secondary education are up to six times less likely to marry as girls who have not been educated.[6]

Violence

Girls are often subjected to violence on their way to school and also within schools which prevents them from attending school and dropping out. ActionAid has reported that in the Upper West region of Ghana, girls have to walk long distances to school. More than 50 girls a year are abducted and subjected to sexual violence or sexual exploitation on their way to school.[7] Girls are mostly in danger during the rainy season where attackers hide in the long grass waiting for girls on their way to school.[8]

Girls also face gender-based violence within schools which significantly impacts their physical and mental health and consequently leads to them dropping out of schools. Studies have shown that many schools lack facilities which make them safe such as perimeter fences and well-lit pathways.[9] Nora Fyles, Head of Secretariat for UN Girls’ Education Initiative has stated that “[girls] don’t think about learning when they’re trying to figure out what the next exit is or whether they can go to the toilet and be safe”.[10]

Gender biases in schools

Many practices and facilities within schools are discriminatory towards girls which also results in girls not being able to attend school or dropping out. A lot of schools do not have water, sanitation or hygiene facilities which accommodate girls, for example separate toilets for boys and girls.[11] Marni Sommer, Associate Professor in Sociomedical Sciences at Columbia University, has noted that “[t]here is shame, there’s embarrassment…I’ve been in countries where girls thought if they told anybody [they were menstruating] they’d die”.[12]

Furthermore, in a lot of countries, teaching methods, practices and syllabuses are not gender-neutral which results in gender biases and stereotypes against girls and women.[13] A lot of the time, teachers have not been told how to respond to gender-based violence in schools and do not know how to help girls with issues they have. This leads to girls not feeling comfortable, safe or secure within schools.

Reasons as to why education is important

Breaks poverty cycle

There are several reasons as to why it is as important for girls to access and complete education. Firstly, if girls are educated, they are more likely to attain better paid jobs and earn more money which helps to break the poverty cycle. This in turn creates additional opportunities for girls and women and can contribute to economic growth. According to the Malala Fund, more women in work can add up to $12 trillion to the global economy.[14]

Furthermore, educating girls provides them with core skills which allows them to take up more complex leadership roles such as in politics. This helps them to create effective change, participate in decisions affecting their families and communities, and advocate for future policies.[15] It also reduces the gender gap within jobs and allows everyone to be entitled to the same opportunities.[16]

Reduces child marriage and improves the health of girls

Allowing girls to access education also means that they are less likely to marry at a young age and drop out of school. ActionAid has reported that in 18 out of 20 countries with the highest rates of child marriage, girls who are not in schools are up to six times more likely to marry young than girls who have been educated at secondary level.[17] Educating girls means that they have more control over their lives and will be less likely to suffer from domestic violence.[18]

Additionally, girls who stay in schools are less likely to become pregnant or give birth at a young age which decreases infant and maternal mortality rates.[19] Research has shown that in sub-Saharan Africa, the birth rate among girls who have been educated at secondary level is four times less than girls who have not been educated.[20] Furthermore, well-educated girls are less at risk of contracting HIV and are more likely to utilise methods to prevent diseases such as malaria, for example, by using bed nets.[21]

Helps to prepare for natural disasters

Studies have shown that educating girls is also useful for climate change and preparing for natural disasters. Brookings Institution has reported that girls who are secondary level educated are the most cost-effective and most effective investment against climate change.[22] They have knowledge about how to cope when there is a natural disaster or when there is severe weather due to climate change and as a result, less deaths or injuries occur within families and communities.[23]

Ways to help girls access education

One of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals is to ‘[e]nsure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all’ by 2030.[24] However, there is a lot to be done in order to reduce gender inequality in schools and allow more girls to access education around the world. Many charities have set up projects and initiatives and some of these are outlined below.

Helping girls get to school safely

As mentioned previously in the article, girls are often at risk of being abducted and are subjected to sexual violence or sexual exploitation whilst making their way to school. Therefore, it is crucial that there are plans to help girls get to school safely. ActionAid have implemented an initiative where they provide bikes to girls which shortens the long and dangerous route to school and means that girls do not have to leave very early in the morning when it is still dark outside.[25]

Eliminating gender inequality in schools

It is also important to remove gender inequality and stereotypes within schools. UNICEF is carrying out work whereby they aim to help governments implement gender-responsive budgets and impose national education policies and plans which promote gender equality. UNICEF is also developing secondary education initiatives which aim to remove discriminatory practices and look at menstrual hygiene practices in schools.[26]

Sponsoring a child

Through many charities such as ActionAid or World Vision Canada you can sponsor a child which helps to tackle poverty and ensures everyone obtains an education.[27] Sponsoring a child can help provide basic necessities to families in poverty. It can also help to pay for school fees, equipment and materials associated with schooling such as textbooks. Additionally, it can help to pay for a school building in the place where the child lives. ActionAid has successful changed girls’ lives in Zanzibar. It has been reported that through sponsorship, a school, nursery and hospital were built and children now have somewhere they can go.[28]

Conclusion

Overall, it is clear that both boys and girls should have the right to education and equal opportunities in life, however, in many countries, girls are prevented from being educated which leads to gender inequality. Barriers include poverty, child marriage, violence and gender biases in schools. Educating girls helps to break the poverty cycle, reduces the number of child marriages and improves the health of girls, and it helps families and communities prepare for natural disasters and climate change. Several charities around the world have implemented initiatives and projects which aim to improve girls’ education. Nevertheless, more work needs to be done in local communities in order for the gender gap in education to be eliminated altogether.

[1]UNICEF, ‘Girls’ education’ <https://www.unicef.org/education/girls-education> accessed 30 September 2021

[2]World Bank Group, ‘Girls’ Education’ <https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/girlseducation#1> accessed 30 September 2021

[3]ibid

[4]ibid

[5]Laura Paddison, ‘Educating girls: the key to tackling global poverty’ The Guardian (04 October 2017)

[6]World Bank Group ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 2)

[7]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’< https://www.actionaid.org.uk/our-work/womens-rights/girls-education> accessed 30 September 2021

[8]ibid

[9]World Bank Group ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 2)

[10]Laura Paddison, ‘Educating girls: the key to tackling global poverty’ (n 5)

[11]World Bank Group ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 2)

[12]Laura Paddison, ‘Educating girls: the key to tackling global poverty’ (n 5)

[13]UNICEF, ‘Girls’ education’ (n 1)

[14]Malala Fund, ‘Girls’ education’ <https://malala.org/girls-education?sc=header> accessed 30 September 2021

[15]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7)

[16]UNICEF, ‘Girls’ education’ (n 1)

[17]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7)

[18]Theirworld, ‘Girls’ education’ <https://theirworld.org/explainers/girls-education> accessed 30 September 2021

[19]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7)

[20]Theirworld, ‘Girls’ education’ (n 18)

[21]ibid

[22]Malala Fund, ‘Girls’ education’ (n 14)

[23]Theirworld, ‘Girls’ education’ (n 18)

[24]United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Sustainable Development <https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4> accessed 30 September 2021

[25]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7)

[26]Leah Rodriguez, ‘7 Obstacles to Girls’ Education and How to Overcome Them’ Global Citizen (24 September 2019)

[27]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7) and World Vision Canada, ‘Girls’ education: facts and how to help’ <https://www.worldvision.ca/stories/education/girls-education-facts-and-how-to-help> accessed 30 September 2021

[28]ActionAid, ‘Girls’ Education’ (n 7)

Helen Little In Programmes

Street Children With Disabilities: Education

Picture of a classroom in a developing country, filled with students

Impacts of living with disability as a street child

School as a street child

Street children are rarely enrolled in formal education. They are often excluded from normal classrooms, which can make learning more difficult. Instead, those who are in education tend to use local programmes with teaching that is better tailored to the needs of street children (1). This includes time for children to work to support themselves or their families (1). These programmes have been vital in supporting street children as education is often essential for them to survive extreme poverty (2).

Regardless of the school system, it is common for street children to face many difficulties with education due to poverty, discrimination and difficulty getting to school. Like street children, it is also common for children living with disability to experience discrimination, bullying and isolation while at school (1;3). Due to the discrimination already experienced by street children in education, it is easy to imagine how street children also impacted by disability can find education even more challenging, whether in formal education or in street-connected programmes. Therefore, street children living with disability often experience even more hardship at school (4).

Lack of resources for street children with disabilities

Particularly in low-income areas, school budgets cannot afford for funds to be directed towards the needs of special needs children (3). For example, classrooms are often too noisy for children with hearing difficulties to learn and those with visual and physical disabilities cannot be given the support they need for them to manage their impairments at school (2). Therefore, programmes aiming to improve the inclusion of street children in education, whether that be formal or those tailored for street children, are very important. Education is suggested to be the single most effective way for a street child to thrive (2). Furthermore, if on their own, being out of school can force a street child to fend for themselves all day and all night.

What can be done to help

Mobile schools and financial help

Some projects aim to provide a school format for street children which allows time for work, due to many also needing to work on the streets to support themselves and potentially their families (1). For example, the Mobile School NPO created by the CSC Network helps to support street children by delivering teaching in remote areas. This allows them to learn in an open and accessible environment.

Another benefit of programmes like the Mobile School is that they are scalable. In addition, Street Child’s ‘Family Business for Education’ model has made progress in tackling the social and financial barriers experienced by street children and children with disabilities (5). Through this programme, families receive training in developing and saving a stable income, which helps them send their children to school. ‘Family Business for Education’ has been extremely successful by helping more than 50,000 children attend school. Education is vital in helping street children move out of poverty, allowing them to live healthier adult lives (1).

Promoting inclusion of street children with disabilities

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are continuing to develop interventions which are inclusive of street children. Street Child is keen to make education more accessible and inclusive for those living with disability (5). They are continuing to train teachers to promote an inclusive environment which is supportive of their students (5)

Similarly, Chance for Childhood has worked with partners via Comic Relief in Western Kenya, to improve the quality and accessibility of education for street children with additional needs (6). This project is called ‘LEAP’ and one of its main objectives is to promote the inclusion of street children with disabilities. ‘LEAP’ workers believe that children living with disability should be included in formal school, rather than enrolled into separate education (6). They feel that this inclusion is essential to tackle the negative attitudes towards street children and disability. It can be challenging to bring these children back into mainstream education as they can have specific needs. However, with particular support it is possible (6).

Specialist education programmes

The view of ‘LEAP’ is important. However, not all projects aim to re-introduce street children to mainstream education. It is sometimes necessary for street children to have access to an alternative school format as some feel that formal education is not a priority (1;7). Therefore, it is important to communicate with children about their needs. Tailored programmes may suit some street children better. However, further projects which focus on the needs of street children with disabilities as an individual group are needed within schools. If we continue to tackle the stigma surrounding these children, we can hope to improve their education, whether in tailored education or formal school (1;7).

References

Clark J. Realising street children’s right to education | CSC [Internet]. Consortium for Street Children. 2019 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.streetchildren.org/news-and-updates/realising-street-childrens-right-to-education/#_edn1
On International Day of Persons with Disabilities we Advocate for Inclusive Education — Street Child [Internet]. Street Child. 2019 [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.co.uk/blog/2019/12/4/on-international-day-of-persons-with-disabilities-we-advocate-inclusive-education
Mizunoya S, Mitra S, Yamasaki I. Towards Inclusive Education The impact of disability on school attendance in developing countries, Innocenti Working Paper 2016-03 [Internet]. UNICEF, office of research; 2016. Available from: https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/IWP3%20-%20Towards%20Inclusive%20Education.pdf

Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities
Nepal — Street Child [Internet]. Street Child. 2021 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.co.uk/nepal
LEAP from the Street – Learning, Educating And Protecting: Our new education project for street children in Kisumu, Kenya. | Chance for Childhood – Children’s charity [Internet]. Chance for Childhood. 2016 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://chanceforchildhood.org/latest-news/leap-street-learning-educating-protecting-new-education-project-street-children-kisumu-kenya/
Turgut N. The protection and promotion of human rights for street connected children: legal, policy and practical strategies for change [Internet]. Consortium for Street Children; 2017. Available from: https://www.streetchildren.org/wp-content/uploads/gravity_forms/1-07fc61ac163e50acc82d83eee9ebb5c2/2017/04/CSC_Briefing-Paper_March-2017_FINAL-Hi-res_No-crops.pdf

Helen Little In Programmes

Street Children With Disabilities: Discrimination

two young boys running in muddy clothes, smiling at the camera.

Impacts Of Living with Disability As A Street Child

Ableism – discrimination against disability

The negative treatment of people living with disabilities is known as ableism (1). Sadly, this is experienced by almost all people living with disability at some point in their lives. People living in financial difficulty or poverty experience greater levels of disability-related stigma (2). The level of discrimination can also depend on an individual’s type of impairment (2). For example, children with intellectual disabilities often experience greater levels of exclusion than those with physical disability (2).

Amar, a 17-year old boy from Yemen was interviewed for a study on disability and poverty (3). He is deaf and uses sign language to communicate. He explained that he is made to feel uncomfortable when he uses sign language on the street (3). People often stare at him. This is not uncommon and sadly many other children with disability share his experience (4). It is also common for parents of children with disability to be made to feel like outsiders within their own communities (5). There is evidence that this also contributes to their rejection from jobs (5). This can have a further negative effect on a child’s health, with some feeling like they will only be further mistreated if they try to seek help from healthcare professionals (3).

Education as a street child with disability

The discrimination and judgement experienced by children often adds to the difficulties street children have with school (6). For example, according to Street Child, almost half of the children interviewed felt that discrimination was their main barrier to attending school (7). As children also experience discrimination due to disability, street children with disability can have a very difficult time trying to fit in. They can experience discrimination due to both factors, where already belonging to another disadvantaged group can make a child feel even more marginalised (8).

Tackling discrimination against street children and disability

The discrimination faced by street children urgently needs addressed, as negative attitudes prevent many from seeking help. This prevents many from receiving care when they need it (3).

Although it may be that attending specialised education for street children would result in less isolation, some projects such as ‘LEAP’ feel that it is important to include them in mainstream education. They also work to strengthen the systems which protect street and disabled children (9). This project is run by Chance for Childhood through partners in Western Kenya. They aim to improve education for street children and those living with disability (9).

In addition, organisations including Street Girls Aid are working to improve education, nutrition and the safety of street-connected children (10). In partnership with Chance for Childhood, this has helped many children like Ebo, a boy called from Accra who at 18 months old could no longer walk due to malnutrition. Through support by Street Girls Aid, Ebo and his mother were given the support they needed to improve Ebo’s health, and with time Ebo could not only walk again but he also joins in with singing and dancing with other children in his community (10). This is just one example of the good work improving the health of street children.

Impacts of disability on health, education and discrimination in street children

Overall, it is very likely that living with disability as a street child exacerbates the difficulties experienced by street children. They often suffer from poverty and poorer health, worse education and greater discrimination than non-disabled children and those not living on the street (11; 12; 13). However, organisations have together made some excellent steps towards better inclusion and protection of disabled street children. We hope to have highlighted their significance, while there are also many other interventions doing great work. Overall, the articles in this series aim to raise the awareness of the various disabilities and difficulties experienced by disabled street children. This group is often overlooked and therefore need our continued support (14). If interested in the other articles in this series, or indeed any of our other blog updates.

References

Definition of ABLEISM [Internet]. Merriam-webster.com. 2021 [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ableism
UK Department for International Development and other Government departments. Disability stigma in developing countries. K4D helpdesk service, Institute of Development Studies; 2018.
Eid A, Ingstad B. Disability and Poverty: A Global Challenge. Bristol; 2011.
Kuper H, Monteath-van Dok A, Wing K, Danquah L, Evans J, Zuurmond M et al. The Impact of Disability on the Lives of Children; Cross-Sectional Data Including 8,900 Children with Disabilities and 898,834 Children without Disabilities across 30 Countries. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2014 [cited 24 August 2021];9(9):e107300. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4159292/
Rohwerder, B. (2018) Disability Stigma in Developing Countries. K4D Helpdesk Report. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities
Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 24 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities
Children with disabilities [Internet]. Unicef.org. 2021 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/eca/children-disabilities
LEAP from the Street – Learning, Educating And Protecting: Our new education project for street children in Kisumu, Kenya. | Chance for Childhood – Children’s charity [Internet]. Chance for Childhood. 2016 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://chanceforchildhood.org/latest-news/leap-street-learning-educating-protecting-new-education-project-street-children-kisumu-kenya/
The streets are stealing children’s futures | Chance for Childhood – Children’s charity [Internet]. Chance for Childhood. [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://chanceforchildhood.org/our-work/children-on-the-streets/
Kuper H, Monteath-van Dok A, Wing K, Danquah L, Evans J, Zuurmond M et al. The Impact of Disability on the Lives of Children; Cross-Sectional Data Including 8,900 Children with Disabilities and 898,834 Children without Disabilities across 30 Countries. PLoS ONE [Internet]. 2014 [cited 24 August 2021];9(9):e107300. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4159292/
Clark J. Realising street children’s right to education | CSC [Internet]. Consortium for Street Children. 2019 [cited 25 August 2021]. Available from: https://www.streetchildren.org/news-and-updates/realising-street-childrens-right-to-education/#_edn1
Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities
Our work / Toybox [Internet]. Toybox.org.uk. [cited 26 August 2021]. Available from: https://toybox.org.uk/our-work

Helen Little In Programmes

The Link Between Poverty and Disability in Street Children

Disabled girl with one leg using crutches to move around in the street, wearing a unicef backpack

Overview

As we briefly covered in disability in street children, disability is often connected to poverty (1). It is estimated that up to 30% of street children are living with disability (2). This makes disability very common among those living on the street. Many street children also experience severe poverty. Therefore, there is a strong link between poverty and disability in street children. This is a vicious cycle, with each factor exacerbating the effects of the other. Collectively, they have huge influence over the lives of street children (3).

Both poverty and disability are being continually studied by research bodies and charities. A better understanding of the causes of poverty and disability and the relationship between them can help put resources to better use. This understanding helps to improve policy making. Disability is a very serious issue in low and middle income countries. As such, reducing both rates of poverty and disability is part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 (1). Part of this hopes to improve rates of disability among street children.

What is poverty?

There are many ways to define poverty. It is generally associated with factors such as socioeconomic status, income and location (1). However, the cut-off point for poverty is less clear when used in the context of street children. In which case, it is more effective to grade poverty in terms of a reduced access to healthcare and a shortage of basic resources (1). The little healthcare received by many street children increases their risk of disability (1).

Disability – a cause of poverty

Sadly, those living with disability are far more likely to also be living in poverty (1). There are various reasons for the poverty gap between disabled and non-disabled people. Some of this can be explained by the way society is currently structured. At present, the way in which we live is more focussed on what able-bodied people require (1). This makes it much harder to live life with disability. While making overall living more difficult, this also makes it harder for people living with disability to get jobs and to earn the money needed for food and living. This promotes exclusion and increases the risk of those living with disability ending up in poverty (4). Exclusion and discrimination make it more likely for a child living with disability to end up on the street (3).

In addition, children are also more likely to have to work on the street when a member of their family is living with disability (2). While this can be very dangerous, it is sometimes seen necessary for a family to survive. For example, in Ghana, many children work on the street to financially support a disabled family member (2).

Poverty – a cause of disability

Poor health

It is far more likely that a person will develop a physical impairment when living in poverty (1). This is most often due to poor health. Street children are much less likely to have access to essential resources, which has an impact on their health and wellbeing. Poor health is more likely when they do not have the resources to live healthy and free of disease.

Furthermore, it is also common for children with additional needs to require more resources. However, disabled children living in poverty often do not receive these. Without additional support, a disabled child is less able to carry out normal and essential tasks. This prevents them from living a healthy and more normal life (1).

Malnourishment

Inadequate healthcare, poor sanitation and malnutrition are experienced by many people in poverty, particularly street children (5). These factors often lead to severe disease and can result in permanent disability (4). For example, malnourishment can have a serious impact on a child’s health as it limits physical development (3). Poor nutrition during pregnancy can have detrimental effects on a developing baby and increases the risk of disease later in life (6).

Homelessness

Homelessness is another feature of poverty which can contribute to poor health and disability. Children living on the streets have limited contact with carers and family, where little support from care-providers can lead to poor mental and physical health. Therefore, children living or working on the street are commonly described as ‘children at risk’ (7). UNICEF also describes street children in a similar way by labelling them as ‘children in need of special protection’ (7). Since street children as a whole are particularly vulnerable, many children’s charities are working to better support and protect them.

Isolation

Many people are also stigmatised when living in poverty and are seen as out-casts. This is disproportionately the case for street children. Therefore, street children living in poverty and with disability are often even more isolated.

Summary

There is a strong two-way relationship between poverty and disability. On the one hand, disability increases the risk of a person having to live in poverty. There are many reasons for this and it is often very complex. Children with disability often receive poorer education (10). This is often due to a lack of understanding and judgement from others, and impacts a child’s ability to find work later in life. Without work, poverty and a life on the street is far more likely for these children. Combined with the social exclusion experienced by many disabled children, it is clear that disability can contribute to poverty.

In addition, poverty also increases the risk of disability. Without sufficient money it can be very hard to access vital resources, such as healthcare and nutritional food. This negatively impacts a child’s physical health where disease, malnutrition and a lack of medicine can lead to the development of disability. Therefore, rates of disability are far higher amongst adults and children living in poverty (3).

Poverty and disability in street children

Overall, both poverty and disability are very common in street children (8). Living on the street and with disability has twice the negative impact on a child’s life. More help is urgently required to improve these children’s lives (9). Help us support vulnerable children.

References

Palmer M. Disability and Poverty: A Conceptual Review. Journal of Disability Policy Studies [Internet]. 2011 [cited 13 June 2021];21(4):210-218. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1044207310389333
Ingstad B, Eide A. Disability and Poverty: A Global Challenge. Chicago: Policy Press; 2011.
Street Child. On International Day of Persons with Disabilities we Advocate for Inclusive Education — Street Child [Internet]. Street Child. 2019 [cited 13 June 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.co.uk/blog/2019/12/4/on-international-day-of-persons-with-disabilities-we-advocate-inclusive-education
Mitra S, Posarac A, Vick B. Disability and Poverty in Developing Countries: A Multidimensional Study. World Development [Internet]. 2013 [cited 13 June 2021];41:1-18. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X12001465
Banks L, Kuper H, Polack S. Poverty and disability in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. PLOS ONE [Internet]. 2017 [cited 13 June 2021];12(12):e0189996. Available from: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0189996
Roseboom T. Handbook of Famine, Starvation, and Nutrient Deprivation. The Netherlands: Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute; 2017.
Panter‐brick C. Homelessness, poverty, and risks to health: beyond at risk categorizations of street children1. Children’s Geographies [Internet]. 2004 [cited 13 June 2021];2(1). Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1473328032000168787?casa_token=IrddfS6UXfoAAAAA%3AR_P9f01XM_z57spnmwwr9dOShWSZ33cpaFX98fy6UXBNkmOpVXvdkhqupQhPAM-m_PAhOhpH84VVlA
Vameghi M, Sajjadi S, Rafiey H, Rashidian A. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF STUDIES ON STREET CHILDREN IN IRAN IN RECENT DECADE: POVERTY, A RISK FACTOR FOR BECOMING A STREET CHILD. Social Welfare [Internet]. 2010 [cited 13 June 2021];:337 To 378. Available from: https://www.sid.ir/en/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=194296
Mitra S, Posarac A, Vick B. Disability and Poverty in Developing Countries: A Multidimensional Study. World Development [Internet]. 2013 [cited 13 June 2021];41:1-18. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X12001465
Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities

Amy Kerr In Programmes

Child Marriage

Marriage is a formally recognised legal union between two people in a relationship. However, many girls around the world are subject to marriage against their will at a very young age. Child marriage occurs where at least one party to the marriage is under 18 years old. It is a type of forced marriage as one party does not freely consent to the marriage and may be coerced into marrying^[1]. Child marriage is a practice which disproportionality affects girls more than boys with one in five girls being married before they reach the age of 18 compared to one in thirty boys^[2]. It is often the result of gender inequality.

According to UNICEF, the number of child marriages has decreased globally from one in four girls marrying almost ten years ago to around one in five girls marrying today^[3]. Nevertheless, the practice is still a global issue which is prevalent in many areas around the world. If it continues, by 2030, almost one billion girls will be subject to marriage at a young age^[4].

In this article, we will firstly look at child marriage in the context of human rights and will consider where the practice remains predominate in the world. We will then explore the main drivers behind child marriage. Next, we will discuss the negative consequences of child marriage on girls today. Lastly, we will examine what may help to eradicate the practice globally.

Child marriage and human rights

Treaties and conventions

Child marriage is a practice which significantly violates a person’s human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which paved the way for subsequent human rights treaties, was adopted in 1948 and states in Article 16 that ‘[m]arriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.’ This was later reinforced in Article 1 of the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages which came into force in 1964.

In 1979 the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women was adopted and according to Article 16, men and women have the same right to marriage. They also have ‘the same right freely to choose a spouse and to enter into marriage only with their free and full consent’. Article 16 goes on to state that ‘[t]he betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action, including legislation, shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage….’ Thus, it is clear that pressurising girls to marry against their will at a young age breaches the rights set out in these international treaties and conventions.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which is the main international treaty concerning children’s rights, does not specifically address child marriage. However, other rights contained within this Convention are linked to the practice. These include the right to freedom of expression (Article 13) and protection from violence and abuse (Article 19).

Resolutions and goals

Over a number of years, the United Nations has adopted many resolutions aimed at tackling the problem of child marriage. In 2013, the United Nations Human Rights Council adopted a resolution entitled ‘[s]trengthening efforts to prevent and eliminate child, early and forced marriage: challenges, achievements, best practices and implementation gaps’^[5] and the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs has set the goal of eliminating all ‘harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation’ as one its seventeen Sustainable Development Goals^[6].

Where is the practice prevalent?

Despite being a human rights violation, the practice still takes place in no less than 117 countries around the world^[7]. According to UNICEF, the highest rate of child marriage is in sub-Saharan Africa where 35% of girls are subject to marriage before the age of 18. South Asia follows this where 30% of girls are subject to marriage before the age of 18. Other countries where the practice remains prevalent include Latin America and Caribbean (24%); the Middle East and North Africa (17%) and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (12%)^[8].

The reasons behind child marriage

Female child poverty

Poverty is one of the main causes of child marriage globally. Girls residing in poorer families are twice as likely to be subject to marriage before they reach the age of 18 than girls residing in better-off families^[9]. Girls are often seen as placing an economic burden upon families and are regarded as expensive to educate, feed and clothe^[10]. Therefore, families, and sometimes the girls themselves, regard marriage as a way of becoming financially secure and escaping poverty^[11]. Due to the significant issue of gender inequality which is prevalent in many countries, girls often lack education and are dependent upon men economically. Accordingly, they may regard marriage as the only way to become financially better-off.

Dowries and ‘bride prices’

Additionally, often a girl’s family pay a dowry to the groom’s family. Normally, the younger the bride, the smaller the dowry. This is an incentive for families to subject their daughters to marriage at a young age^[12]. Similarly, in situations where a groom’s family pays the bride’s family a ‘bride price’, families suffering from economic hardship may choose to marry their daughter at a young age in return for an economic profit^[13]. Sadly, due to COVID-19, there has been many school closures and the pandemic has had a significant economic impact on many families and communities. Consequently, many more girls are at risk of the practice^[14].

Social and cultural norms

The most significant driver of child marriage is poverty, however, the practice also occurs due to social and cultural rules. Child marriage is a ‘norm’ in many communities and if families do not coincide with the practice, their own communities may regard them as outsiders or exclude them^[15]. Therefore, many parents marry their daughters young to gain social status. Furthermore, due to widespread patriarchal systems, women are often subservient to men. In certain countries, girls who have relationships outside marriage or fall pregnant before marriage bring disgrace and shame to their families. Therefore, parents may decide to marry their daughters at a young age to protect them and their family’s social position within communities^[16].

Negative effects and consequences

Social and mental health problems

The practice has many negative consequences on the lives of girls around the world socially, mentally and physically. Girls who marry at a young age no longer attend school and this therefore hinders their access to education^[17]. Furthermore, the practice has a significant impact on the mental health of many girls. When girls marry at a young age, they have to move in with their husband’s family and the husband’s family home may be in a different town. Thus, girls may no longer be able to maintain social connections with people outside their new families. Additionally, due to the dowry paid, a girl’s husband may be older than her. Accordingly, she may not share the same interests as her husband. Once married, girls may also have children. Consequently, they lose their adolescence, freedom to play and make friends which can result in isolation and depression^[18].

Physical health problems

Furthermore, girls face many physical health problems as a result of the practice. Many families believe that marrying their daughters at a young age protects them from sexually transmitted infections. However, this is not necessarily true. Research has shown that in Kenya, girls who are married are 50% more likely to have HIV than girls who are not married^[19] and in Zambia, this is 59%^[20]. Furthermore, girls who are subject to marriage at a young age are often not ready to have sexual intercourse or reproduce^[21]. Statistics have shown that girls who are aged between 10 and 14 are five to seven times more likely to pass away during childbirth and girls aged between 15 and 19 are twice as likely to pass away during childbirth^[22].

Additionally, young girls often face prolonged childbirth resulting in obstetric fistula. Commentators have stated that girls who have suffered from obstetric fistula experience incontinence, shame and other health issues^[23]. Alarmingly, between 50,000 and 100,000 women suffer from obstetric fistula every year and according to the World Health Organization, over 2 million girls in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are living with this condition and it is not being treated^[24].

What will eradicate the practice?

Increasing education

In order to tackle the problem of child marriage, there needs to be a focus on education. Girls subject to child marriage should develop knowledge about the consequences of marrying young. They also need to learn about the affect the practice may have on their futures. If there is legislation tackling the practice, girls need to know that this legislation exists. They should additionally become aware of who to get in touch with should they need help^[25]. The parents of young girls also need to be educated about the risks of child marriage and should become aware of the fact that forcing their daughters to marry at a young age could be breaking the law. Furthermore, local community leaders need to be provided with education about the impact of child marriage. As role models, this could help to shift local community patterns and beliefs^[26].

Working with local communities

Additionally, there needs to be more ground work within the local communities. Local governments need to enforce campaigns fighting against the practice. There also needs to be local media coverage and local NGOs must directly work with communities^[27]. NGOs should also offer psychological assistance to victims^[28]. It has been found that the programmes which are most successful at preventing child marriages are those which have given families financial incentives to keep girls at school, those which feed children during school (removing the burden of parents having to do this), and those which give employment opportunities to girls once they have finished school^[29].

ActionAid, an international charity, has carried out significant work to end child marriage.Local ActionAid staff worked alongside a co-operative women’s group in India and ActionAid’s partner organisation called Swaraj to raise awareness about the impact of the practice, the importance of girls remaining in school, and girls’ rights to choose who and when they marry. In the community, young women used to marry at 15 or 16 years old. However, after raising awareness about the negative consequences of child marriage, the average age has increased. Now most women in the community do not marry until they are 22 years old^[30].

Conclusion

Overall, it is clear that child marriage is still a widespread practice and it is a serious violation of a person’s human rights. Poverty primarily drives child marriage in many regions, however, it is also a deeply-rooted practice which occurs as a result of cultural and social norms. The practice negatively affects girls’ mental and physical health and wellbeing, their social life and their education. There needs to be more education along with cooperation with local governments, NGOs and the media to help raise awareness about the negative impact of child marriage on girls and eliminate the practice all together.

Footnotes

[1]United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Child and forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings’ https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WRGS/Pages/ChildMarriage.aspx> accessed 13 May 2021

[2]UNICEF, ‘115 million boys and men around the world married as children – UNICEF’, <https://www.unicef.org.uk/press-releases/115-million-boys-and-men-around-the-world-married-as-children-unicef/> accessed 21 May 2021

[3]UNICEF, ‘Child marriage’ <https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage> accessed 13 May 2021

[4]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (December 2016) <https://www.womenalliance.org/child-marriage-a-practice-driven-by-poverty> accessed 13 May 2021

[5]United Nations Human Rights Council, ‘Resolution Adopted by the Human Rights Council, Strengthening Efforts to Prevent and Eliminate Child, Early and Forced Marriage: Challenges, Achievements, Best Practices and Implementation Gaps (A/HRC/RES/24/23)’ 2013

[6]Goal 5.3, Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, ‘Sustainable Development Goals,’ Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform < https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300> accessed 13 May 2021

[7]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (n 4)

[8]UNICEF, ‘Child marriage is a violation of human rights, but is all too common’ (April 2020) <https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/child-marriage/> accessed 13 May 2021

[9]ICRW, ‘Child marriage and poverty’ <https://www.icrw.org/files/images/Child-Marriage-Fact-Sheet-Poverty.pdf> accessed 13 May 2021

[10]Nour, Nawal M. “Child marriage: a silent health and human rights issue.” Reviews in obstetrics & gynecology vol. 2,1 (2009): 51-6

[11]Girls Not Brides, ‘About child marriage’ <https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/about-child-marriage/why-child-marriage-happens/> accessed 13 May 2021

[12]United Nations Population Fund, ‘Child marriage – Frequently Asked Questions’ (January 2020) <https://www.unfpa.org/child-marriage-frequently-asked-questions> accessed 13 May 2021

[13]ibid

[14]United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Child and forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings’ (n 1)

[15]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (n 4)

[16]Girls Not Brides, ‘About child marriage’ (n 11)

[17]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (n 4)

[18]Nour, Nawal M. “Child marriage: a silent health and human rights issue.” Reviews in obstetrics & gynecology vol. 2,1 (2009): 51-6

[19]ibid

[20]ibid

[21]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (n 4)

[22]Nour, Nawal M. “Child marriage: a silent health and human rights issue.” Reviews in obstetrics & gynecology vol. 2,1 (2009): 51-6

[23]Nyasha Chingono, ‘My dreams were destroyed’: poverty costs child brides dear in Zimbabwe’ The Guardian (04 January 2019)

[24]World Health Organization, ‘Obstetric fistula’ (19 February 2018) <https://www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/10-facts-on-obstetric-fistula> last accessed 21 May 2021

[25]Plan International, ‘Ending Child Marriage’ <https://plan-uk.org/about/our-work/child-marriage> accessed 24 May 2021

[26]ibid

[27]Women Alliance, ‘Child marriage – a practice driven by poverty’ (n 4)

[28]ibid

[29]Nour, Nawal M. “Child marriage: a silent health and human rights issue.” Reviews in obstetrics & gynecology vol. 2,1 (2009): 51-6

[30]ActionAid, ‘Child Marriage’ < https://www.actionaid.org.uk/our-work/womens-rights/child-marriage> last accessed 24 May 2021

Francesca Green In Programmes

The Sustainable Development Goals

This photo displays a group of children in Afghanistan waiting for a food distribution delivered by a charity as part of their effort to meet the Sustainable Development Goals

What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

In 2015, world leaders met to discuss an agenda for sustainable development. They came up with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to reach by 2030¹. These goals, that apply universally, are in place with the aim to end all forms of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, ensuring that no one is left behind.

The SDGs build on the success of the Millennium Development goals², which range from halting the spread of aids to providing universal primary education. They were very successful and a great blueprint for the sustainable development goals. The consequent new goals call for action from all countries to promote prosperity while protecting the planet.

Sustainable Development goals are not legally binding; however, the United Nations expect government to create plans and take responsibility to work towards the SDGs within their own countries. Success of these goals relies on countries own sustainable development plans.

How do the Sustainable Development Goals relate to poverty and what is being done?

Goal One

The first two goals in the list relate directly to poverty. They are difficult goals to achieve, however, it is important to try anyway.

Firstly, sustainable development goal number one is to “End poverty in all its forms everywhere”. Poverty is measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day³. Within this goal there are 7 targets⁴. These include implementing social protection systems as well as equal rights to economic resources. In the United Kingdom, the government has been focusing on reducing homelessness. They are doing this by increasing the help available to those at risk of homelessness, promoting a fairer labour market; supporting those who are disadvantaged and improving Universal Credit.

Between 2010 and 2015, poverty had decreased globally from 15.7% to 10%. However, since then it has slowed dramatically. In 2019, it was at 8.2%⁵. Since then, poverty has increased due to the many implications of the pandemic. COVID-19 caused the first increase in global poverty in decades. In 2020 over 71 million people have been pushed into extreme poverty⁶. Natural disasters are also continuing to exacerbate poverty. Many people see their homes, or their livelihood destroyed, and the economic loss has been high.

Goal Two

The second sustainable development goal is to “End hunger and achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.” across the world. In 2018, 26.4% of the population were affected by moderate or severe food insecurity⁷. In 2019, 144 million children under 5 were stunted (have been prevented from developing properly) and 47 million were affected by wasting (muscle and fat tissue ‘waste’ away)⁸. This again relates directly to poverty as it tends to be adults and children who cannot afford necessities who are suffering from hunger.

Some of the 8 targets⁹include addressing malnutrition in children, doubling agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers. They also include creating and implementing sustainable food production systems. In the United Kingdom, the government has created four general actions to achieve these goals¹⁰. For example, these includes a sustainable model of food production by working alongside the Food Standards Agency. Furthermore, promoting healthy lives and strengthening the Global Financing Facility. Recently, the pandemic has had implications on the progress of this goal. As well as this, conflict and climate shocks, many people have no access to food. Additionally, small-scale food producers are suffering. In developing regions, about 40-85% of all food producers have been compromised¹¹.

The total number of people suffering from severe food insecurity has been on the rise since 2015. Due to the pandemic, around 370 million schoolchildren are missing the free school meals that they rely on¹².

What is Poverty Child doing?

Our focus has always been on helping improve life for vulnerable children affected by urban poverty, delivering programmes aimed at getting poverty children to think differently about their life chances. However, we also recognise that the issue of poverty is complex and needs breaking down so that it can be more easily understood, which is why we also work on raising awareness of the wider issues here on our website.

To help the work that Poverty Child do, you can donate and/or volunteer. There are many ways to donate, including by recycling your unwanted items with us.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are:

End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages.
Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.
Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
Reduce inequality within and among countries.
Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.
Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

Footnotes:

Helen Little In Programmes

Disability in Street Children: Causes and Impacts

Young boy in poverty in developing region.

Overview

A large number of children living with disabilities are living in developing regions (1). This is very important here at Poverty Child as many of these children are living on the street. This is a large public health concern, as disability in street children can greatly impact children’s physical and mental health.

Street children and poverty

Work at Poverty Child aims to improve the lives and outcomes of children living and working on the street. The term ‘Street Children’ is used to describe either children who live and work on the streets, or those who spend a a lot of time on the street but sleep away from public spaces (2).

Poverty is a main cause of children having to live on the street. Other causes include the death of family members, neglect or violence. Poverty is also a main cause of disability, where the cost of healthcare prevents many people from being able to access vital services (3). Disability can increase the probability of being in poverty, as it prevents many from being able to work. In addition, many children receive poorer education as a result of disability. To clarify, disability and poverty are closely linked, as both impact on the lives of street children. Disability in street children adds an additional hardship. For example, street children living with disabilities are more vulnerable to violence and typically have poorer health (2).

Furthermore, disabled street children are often ignored and they try to remain hidden as a result of the high levels of discrimination they experience (2). Work in Sierra Leone by Street Child has shown that discrimination is one of the biggest factors contributing to poor education for children living with disabilities (4).

In addition, the current Coronavirus pandemic has also had a large impact on street children living with disabilities (5). This has made it harder for them to access food or help. Currently, there is a need to remotely support children with disabilities due to Coronavirus.

Causes of disability in street children

There are a large number of factors which can cause disability in children (1). However, many of these have been tackled in higher income countries. Yet, many preventable diseases are continuing to cause disability in children of low-income settings (1). For example, disability may be caused by infectious diseases, infections by parasites and diseases not directly spread from person to person (1). In addition, in poor regions and street children especially, factors such as malnutrition, maternal and perinatal disease and social unrest are also common causes (3).

Types of disability

A person with a disability has a long term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairment (6). Research from Street Child suggests that more street children have intellectual disabilities than physical ones. For example, this may include learning and social impairments. Subsequently, this can affect their education (7).

The Medical and Social Models of Disability (6)

Models of disability

The social model of disability highlights the discrimination a person may face due to their disability (6). This stigma has existed for a long time, and remains an issue around the world. To add further, there is often a view that disability is the ‘fault’ of the person. Instead, society needs to be fully inclusive of people living with disability (8). In comparison, the medical model of disability more directly focuses on changes to the physical or mental abilities of a person (6).

Discrimination in disabled children

Children living with disability experience stigma and discrimination, on top of the difficulties caused by the disability itself (9). Discrimination is described by UNICEF as ‘any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of disability’ (6). This causes many children to feel isolated and helpless (9).

Discrimination in education

Disability often prevents children from fully taking part in their community. As a result, this causes many to feel like outsiders within their own communities (8). For example, it is common for children with disabilities to be separated in classrooms. Some teachers will refuse to teach children with disabilities alongside other children (8). This continues to make those with disabilities believe there is something wrong with them. Furthermore, it also suggests to able-bodied children that the two groups need to be separated. This results in poorer education for disabled children. Many children begin to feel this stigma towards themselves, which results in them not wanting to seek help or access to health services. This further adds to the struggle of living with disability as a child. Furthermore, they have been left behind in the global attempt to improve education for street children as a whole (10).

Gender-based discrimination

Gender-based discrimination is also experienced by girls living with disabilities. Consequently, they overall receive less education and less career training than boys with disabilities and able-bodied girls of the same age (11). This exclusion is commonly as a result of them being invisible. Therefore, it is important that we work to include disabled girls within and out-with disabled communities (11).

Developments to disability in street children

Many organisations are working to improve the health and lives of children living in low income countries (1). In particular, programmes are working to improve the outcomes of disability in street children. For example, community-based programmes are being used to emphasise the importance of good health care for disabled children. The introduction of such programmes has helped improve childhood access to healthcare in Tanzania. This is a country currently struggling with high rates or childhood disability (1).

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals for 2030 hope to make education more inclusive and more accessible to all children (10). However, there is a lack of research on the education of disabled children, particularly in those living on the streets (9). This is due to a lack of funding. As a result, this limits the improvements which can be made to the education of disabled street children. One way to solve this is through fundraising campaigns. These campaigns are increasing awareness and therefore support for projects. Subsequently, this increase in funding is helping to meet the needs of every child living with disability.

In addition, there is a mindset that we need to ‘fix’ children living with disabilities. This implies that something is wrong with them. Instead, it is better if we work to remove the stigma the children face. This would result in children being free to succeed no matter their impairment (8). For instance, UNICEF’s ‘Its about ability’ campaign is aimed at changing community perception of disability, which is helping to improve the acceptance and inclusion of disabled children (8).

Coronavirus

Sadly, the global pandemic had a negative impact on much of the progress being made. However, organisations such as Chance For Childhood have done great work to meet the needs of disabled street children through outreach teams during this difficult time. The result: much improved support of street children in Kenya and Ghana (5).

Overall, these programmes can collectively help us to improve disability in street children.

References

Cameron D, Nixon S, Parnes P, Pidsadny M. Children with disabilities in low-income countries. Paediatrics & Child Health [Internet]. 2005 [cited 25 April 2021];10(5):269-272. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2722543/
org. The Facts about Street Children | Consortium for Street Children [Internet]. Consortium for Street Children. 2019 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.streetchildren.org/about-street-children/
Simkiss D, Blackburn C, Mukoro F, Read J, Spencer N. Childhood disability and socio-economic circumstances in low and middle income countries: systematic review. BMC Pediatrics [Internet]. 2011 [cited 25 April 2021];11(1). Available from: https://bmcpediatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2431-11-119
Weimert F. Discrimination is the biggest obstacle to education for children with disabilities — Street Child Switzerland [Internet]. Street Child Switzerland. 2018 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://www.street-child.ch/news/discrimination-education-children-with-disabilities
Chance For Childhood. How we’re supporting vulnerable children during Coronavirus | Chance for Childhood – Children’s charity [Internet]. Chance for Childhood. 2020 [cited 5 May 2021]. Available from: https://chanceforchildhood.org/latest-news/how-were-supporting-vulnerable-children-during-coronavirus/
Desk Review for Developing Measures on Discriminatory Attitudes and Social Norms towards Children with Disabilities in Europe and Central Asia region [Internet]. Dornsfife: UNICEF; 2018. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/eca/media/13391/file
Kamara J. A Study on the Barriers to Education for Children with Disabilities in Sierra Leone [Internet]. Chicago: Street Child; 2018. Available from: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5620ddc4e4b04789570e5fca/t/5b570243aa4a997ca1cf356b/1532428909558/A%2BStudy%2Bon%2Bthe%2B%2BBarriers%2Bto%2BEducation%2Bfor%2BChildren%2Bwith%2BDisabilities%2Bin%2BSierra%2BLeone%2B.pdf
Children with disabilities [Internet]. Unicef.org. 2021 [cited 25 April 2021]. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/eca/children-disabilities
Maulik P, Darmstadt G. Childhood Disability in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Overview of Screening, Prevention, Services, Legislation, and Epidemiology. PEDIATRICS [Internet]. 2007 [cited 25 April 2021];120(Supplement):S1-S55. Available from: https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/120/Supplement_1/S1.full.pdf
The World Bank. Education: Children with disabilities are being left behind, says World Bank/GPE report [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/12/01/children-with-disabilities-are-being-left-behind
The State of the World’s Children 2013 [Internet]. Unicef.org. 2013 [cited 25 April 2021]. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/reports/state-worlds-children-2013

Francesca Green In Programmes

What is Poverty?

Indian child in poverty looking through barbed wire

Poverty is a global issue that affects many people. Across the world there is thought to be 734 million people who live on less that $1.90 a day¹ (according to studies in 2015).

Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for a person’s basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion, as well as the lack of participation in decision making. Pre-pandemic, around 10% of the world population were living in extreme poverty and struggling to fulfil basic needs², such as health, education and access to water and sanitation. It is a complex issue that may include social, economic, political and geographical elements. There is no single best measure of poverty, it does not mean the same thing for everyone.

In 2015, the United Nations Member States all agreed upon 17 Sustainable Development Goals to protect the planet and improve the lives and prospects of everyone, everywhere.

As part of the 15-year plan, the first goal is to end poverty³. The Sustainable Development Goals main reference to ending poverty is in target 1.A: “Ensure significant mobilisation of resources from a variety of sources, including through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions.” Many charities, including Poverty Child, are working on this common goal. However, this is a large task and figures show that currently, we will not reach that target. The aftermath of the pandemic threatens to push a further 70 million people into extreme poverty⁴.

How do you measure poverty?

There is not one distinguished measure of poverty, it is a complex issue that has many dependents. Poverty can mean something different to a lot of people. The UK measures poverty in different ways, two commonly used measures⁵ are:

People in relative low income (living in households with income below 60% of the median that year).
People in absolute low income (living in households with income below 60% of (inflation-adjusted) median income in the same base year – usually 2010/11).

Absolute low income looks at whether living standards at the bottom of the distribution are improving over time. Income can be measured before or after housing costs are deducted (BHC or AHC). Poverty levels tend to be higher after housing costs as poorer households tend to spend a higher proportion of their income on housing.

According to a House of Commons Library report, 11 million people were living in relative low income BHC (UK) in 2018/19. This was 17% of the population. Of that, 2.8 million children were living in poverty⁶. Another measurement is destitution, this is where someone is not able to afford basics such as shelter, heating and clothing and is the lowest level of poverty.

What causes poverty?

There are many causes of poverty, these can vary across the world. Some of the major causes in the UK include:

Low pay.
72% of children living in poverty have at least one parent in work⁷. However, the long-term effects of being in the lowest paid 20% of the UK labour market has been a major cause of enduring poverty in the UK. Often in the case of low paid jobs, there are not opportunities for promotion and the hours are unpredictable.
Worklessness.
Since 2006, there has been a 60% rise in the number of people moving repeatedly between work and unemployment⁸.
68% of children in families with no working adults are in poverty⁹. Often people want to work but they are not able to due to different barriers to work. This is heightened during the pandemic when many businesses are having to close and subsequently workers are being let go.
Inadequate benefits.
Currently, in-work benefits are not sufficient to overcome labour market challenges and keep people out of poverty. Not only that but housing and childcare costs are constantly increasing, this increases families risks of poverty. The social security system should provide a safety net to prevent people falling into poverty – this is not the case for most.

There are many other causes for poverty, such as discrimination, abuse and trauma, and weak relationships. These causes could be a consequence of a random life event or moment, that then catches people in a trap and keeps them in a cycle that they cannot escape. This could simply be getting sick and not being able to work for a while.

The effects of poverty can be severe. They can lead to homelessness, health issues, family issues, drug or alcohol abuse and lower educational achievement, to name a few. It has a huge impact on the community and those surrounding it. Poverty affects more than one in four children in the UK today. Children who grow up in poverty miss out on what many of us take for granted, clothing, three meals a day, even a school trip. It is often found that students who are in poverty are less likely to be successful at school and then earn less as adults. This cycle is vicious but not inevitable. If we work together, it will be possible to have a stronger economy and a fairer society that will help everyone.

What does Poverty Child do?

Poverty Child is part of that movement to help the children who are living in poverty¹⁰. We are a charity that is dedicated to improving the life for street and slum connected children. Our mission is to empower them to achieve their true potential. Anyone could fall on hard times and find it difficult to make ends meet. It is important to be there to help everyone when they do.

Some of the work that we offer includes:

Mobile clinics.
These provide basic healthcare to children in poorer areas.
Street schools
A cordoned street that becomes a classroom for learning basic literacy and numeracy.
Day Centres
A safe place for children to get a meal, wash, counselling and basic schooling.
Night Centres
A safe place for a child to sleep at night.

This work is currently focused abroad.

Please look through our blog to see more information on ways you can help our charity. This can include donating directly or volunteering. It is also possible to recycle coins and currency, mobile phones, cameras and other gadgets, old jewellery, stamps and ink cartridges. Please visit our homepage for more information.

Bibliography

1,2,4

Nations, U., 2021. Ending Poverty | United Nations. [online] United Nations. Available at: <https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/ending-poverty> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

Nations, U., 2021. Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere. [online] United Nations Sustainable Development. Available at: <https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

5, 6

Francis-Devine, B., 2021. Poverty in the UK: Statistics. [online] Commons Library. Available at: <https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn07096/> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

7,8,9

CPAG. 2021. Child Poverty. [online] Available at: <https://cpag.org.uk/child-poverty> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

Poverty Child. 2021. Poverty Child – empowering street and slum connected children. [online] Available at: <https://povertychild.org> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

Additional Resources:

JRF. 2021. What is poverty?. [online] Available at: <https://www.jrf.org.uk/our-work/what-is-poverty> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

United Nations Sustainable Development. 2021. Take Action for the Sustainable Development Goals. [online] Available at: <https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/> [Accessed 3 April 2021].

Programmes

The main causes of gender-based violence

Poverty

Cultural and social norms

Perpetrators are not punished due to violence being unreported

The impact of gender-based violence

Physical and sexual health problems

Mental health problems

The impact on children who are born as a result of gender-based violence

Ways to eradicate gender-based violence

Prevention

Advocacy

Supporting survivors of violence

Conclusion

Impacts Of Living with Disability As A Street Child: Poor Health & Violence

Living on the street

Poor health in street children

Abuse and violence in street children

Improving the health of street children with disabilities

References

Barriers preventing girls’ education

Poverty

Child marriage

Violence

Gender biases in schools

Reasons as to why education is important

Breaks poverty cycle

Reduces child marriage and improves the health of girls

Helps to prepare for natural disasters

Ways to help girls access education

Helping girls get to school safely

Eliminating gender inequality in schools

Sponsoring a child

Conclusion

Impacts of living with disability as a street child

School as a street child

Lack of resources for street children with disabilities

What can be done to help

Mobile schools and financial help

Promoting inclusion of street children with disabilities

Specialist education programmes

References

Impacts Of Living with Disability As A Street Child

Ableism – discrimination against disability

Education as a street child with disability

Tackling discrimination against street children and disability

Impacts of disability on health, education and discrimination in street children

References

Overview

What is poverty?

Disability – a cause of poverty

Poverty – a cause of disability

Poor health

Malnourishment

Homelessness

Isolation

Summary

Poverty and disability in street children

Child marriage and human rights

Treaties and conventions

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

Resolutions and goals

Where is the practice prevalent?

The reasons behind child marriage

Female child poverty

Dowries and ‘bride prices’

Social and cultural norms

Negative effects and consequences

Social and mental health problems

Physical health problems

What will eradicate the practice?

Increasing education

Working with local communities

Conclusion

Footnotes

What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

How do the Sustainable Development Goals relate to poverty and what is being done?

Goal One

Goal Two

What is Poverty Child doing?